Émile Durkheim (1858-1917) was an innovative French sociologist who taught at the University of Bordeaux and the Sorbonne. He's usually upheld in introductory Humanities courses as one of the great three classical sociologists and a pivotal figure in founding sociology as a distinct academic discipline, alongside Karl Marx and Max Weber.
In his seminal work, The Division of Labor in Society (1893), Durkheim explored how societies maintain cohesion in the face of increasing specialization. He contrasted mechanical solidarity, characteristic of traditional societies with minimal division of labor and strong collective consciousness, with organic solidarity, prevalent in modern, complex societies where individuals are interdependent due to the intricate division of labor. This transition, for Durkheim, fundamentally altered the nature of social bonds.
In addition, he tended to view society through what is often called Durkheim's "organic metaphor," predating structural functionalism. He believed that different social institutions functioned like organs in a body, each contributing to the overall health and stability of the social organism. As such, he posited that some social forms were healthier (more functional) than others.
Durkheim sought to create one of the first rigorous scientific approaches to social phenomena. Along with Herbert Spencer, he was among the first to explain the existence and quality of different parts of a society by reference to their function in maintaining the quotidian flow of social life. He also insisted that society was more than the sum of its parts.†
Unlike his contemporaries Ferdinand Tönnies and Max Weber, he focused not on what motivates the actions of individuals (an approach associated with methodological individualism) but rather on the study of social facts. As a result, Durkheim contrasted mechanistic social types (where individuals cooperate less, relying on tradition and punitive authority) to organic solidarity (where individuals cooperate more, working together to satisfy mutual needs). And for Durkheim, the former is inferior to the latter. Furthermore, Durkheim identified the concept of anomie, a state of normlessness or a breakdown of social regulation, which he argued could arise in modern societies due to rapid social change and an overly specialized division of labor, leading to social disorganization and individual distress.
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| Émile Durkheim |
Among his many achievements and insights, Durkheim is seen as a pioneer in using the scientific method to study society. Fundamentally, Durkheim shifted the focus from the individual to the social fact. He argued that social facts – external forces and structures that shape individuals' thoughts and actions, such as laws, morals, and customs – are the proper subject matter of sociology. These "collective representations," emerging from the interactions of many minds within a social environment, possess a reality sui generis and exert a coercive influence on individuals, with statistically demonstrable effects on society.
In his seminal work, The Division of Labor in Society (1893), Durkheim explored how societies maintain cohesion in the face of increasing specialization. He contrasted mechanical solidarity, characteristic of traditional societies with minimal division of labor and strong collective consciousness, with organic solidarity, prevalent in modern, complex societies where individuals are interdependent due to the intricate division of labor. This transition, for Durkheim, fundamentally altered the nature of social bonds.
In addition, he tended to view society through what is often called Durkheim's "organic metaphor," predating structural functionalism. He believed that different social institutions functioned like organs in a body, each contributing to the overall health and stability of the social organism. As such, he posited that some social forms were healthier (more functional) than others.
Durkheim sought to create one of the first rigorous scientific approaches to social phenomena. Along with Herbert Spencer, he was among the first to explain the existence and quality of different parts of a society by reference to their function in maintaining the quotidian flow of social life. He also insisted that society was more than the sum of its parts.†
Unlike his contemporaries Ferdinand Tönnies and Max Weber, he focused not on what motivates the actions of individuals (an approach associated with methodological individualism) but rather on the study of social facts. As a result, Durkheim contrasted mechanistic social types (where individuals cooperate less, relying on tradition and punitive authority) to organic solidarity (where individuals cooperate more, working together to satisfy mutual needs). And for Durkheim, the former is inferior to the latter. Furthermore, Durkheim identified the concept of anomie, a state of normlessness or a breakdown of social regulation, which he argued could arise in modern societies due to rapid social change and an overly specialized division of labor, leading to social disorganization and individual distress.
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| Internet Archive, Zyephyrus |
Durkheim famously applied his sociological method to the study of suicide. In his groundbreaking work, Suicide (1897), he demonstrated through statistical analysis that suicide rates were not solely individual acts but were influenced by social factors such as levels of social integration and regulation. He identified different types of suicide – egoistic (low integration), altruistic (high integration), anomic (low regulation), and fatalistic (high regulation) – linking their prevalence to specific social conditions.
Durkheim also wrote on alleged "elementary" forms of religion, building his theories on the anthropological studies available at the time. He also did (secondary) statistical analyses of the sociological facts of crime and suicide, trying to link their frequency to particular social conditions and beliefs.
What makes Durkheim unique to most sociologists is his blending of theory, method, and observation. In most cases, Durkheim provides a detailed outline and defense of his scientific approach before engaging in a particular study. After completing his research, a theoretical analysis of his data follows. However, most of Durkheim's observations are secondhand. He used the statistics and case studies available to him and rarely – if ever – went out into the field to do his own primary research.
While this approach wouldn't wash today in social psychology, many academic sociologists still get away with armchair philosophy, making obvious statements and distinctions that hardcore philosophers have already covered in far greater detail. The only difference is that the sociologist applies conceptual distinctions to everyday life in an easily understandable and up-to-date style.‡
Durkheim also wrote on alleged "elementary" forms of religion, building his theories on the anthropological studies available at the time. He also did (secondary) statistical analyses of the sociological facts of crime and suicide, trying to link their frequency to particular social conditions and beliefs.
What makes Durkheim unique to most sociologists is his blending of theory, method, and observation. In most cases, Durkheim provides a detailed outline and defense of his scientific approach before engaging in a particular study. After completing his research, a theoretical analysis of his data follows. However, most of Durkheim's observations are secondhand. He used the statistics and case studies available to him and rarely – if ever – went out into the field to do his own primary research.
While this approach wouldn't wash today in social psychology, many academic sociologists still get away with armchair philosophy, making obvious statements and distinctions that hardcore philosophers have already covered in far greater detail. The only difference is that the sociologist applies conceptual distinctions to everyday life in an easily understandable and up-to-date style.‡
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| The French edition of The Rules of the Sociological Method |
Durkheim's lasting influence on sociology is undeniable. His emphasis on social structure, the scientific study of social facts, and his rigorous methodological approach laid the groundwork for much of subsequent sociological inquiry. While his functionalist perspective has faced criticisms for potentially overlooking social conflict and change and his reliance on secondary data has been debated, his contributions remain central to understanding the social world. His work continues to inspire sociological thought about social order, integration, deviance, and the impact of social forces on individual lives.
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† http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim
‡ Forwarding simplified versions of existing philosophical distinctions is evident in the works of Peter Berger and Erving Goffman. However, Berger talked about the importance of data collection, while Goffman usually went a step further, actually going out into the field and getting his own data.
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† http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim
‡ Forwarding simplified versions of existing philosophical distinctions is evident in the works of Peter Berger and Erving Goffman. However, Berger talked about the importance of data collection, while Goffman usually went a step further, actually going out into the field and getting his own data.
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