Beyond Rules and Rituals: Understanding Confucianism, Taoism, and the Meaning of Li

Confucianism is a Chinese teaching of morality, right action and right education, based on the ethical teachings of Confucius (551–479 BCE, born K'ung Fu-tzu or Master K'ung). Up until 1382, statues of Confucius were common in public places.¹ Every city had a shrine dedicated to Confucius and at least two state festivals were held in his honor during mid-spring and mid-autumn. The roots of Confucianism can be found in the ancient Chinese scholar class, the Ju.² They were experts on rituals, sacrifices, astrology, history, and the connection between heaven (T'ien) and earth.³

 Scholar in the Warring States period (5th–3rd century BCE) 

Following Confucius' death in 479 BCE, various schools of Confucianism arose. These Confucian schools are often contrasted with the more mystical aspects of Taoism. Confucianism is usually associated with precise rules of behavior and the State education (including the rigorous Imperial Civil Service Examinations) that persisted in China early into this century (ending in 1905). Taoism, on the other hand, is usually associated with the free-floating, unregulated ideas of Lao-Tzu and Chuang-Tzu, as popularized by Alan Watts and others.

But such a contrast is arguably overemphasized due to Western misunderstanding.

The rites of Confucianism (li) are meant to guide our natural human potential—rooted in humaneness or benevolence (jen)—they are not meant to oppress or stultify. Rules ideally are like stakes guiding a growing plant. Oppression arises when li are distorted or corrupted because a ruler is out of sync with the cosmic harmony (Tao), losing the moral authority known as the Mandate of Heaven (T'ien-ming). Notably, Confucius was not a snob. He believed that through self-cultivation and education, all people could attain ethical correctness and thus become noble personages (chun tzu), regardless of birth status.

These fundamental ideas belong to both Confucianism and Taoism. Differences were arguably not categorical but more about emphasis. The Mencian tradition favored following personal intuition and the innate goodness of human nature (hsing), rather than merely adhering to external rules. But Mencius (Meng-tzu) certainly knew that one must calibrate one's actions to one's social circle—guided by key relational duties such as filial piety (hsiao)—which, sociologists will tell us, always implies a kind of structure and rule.

Outside Confucianism, the philosopher Mo Tzu and his school of Mohism mounted a radical challenge by highlighting the importance of universal love (chien-ai, also translated as "impartial care").⁴ Mo Tzu argued that social chaos, warfare, and injustice stem directly from partiality—from favoring one’s own family, state, or self over others. To remedy this, he advocated treating all human beings with equal concern, caring for another’s parents or state as one would one’s own.

Meanwhile, Confucian thinkers like Mencius (Meng-tzu) strongly critiqued Mo Tzu's view as unnatural and impractical. Mencius stressed the importance of graded love (jen practiced as ch'a-i or differential care)—the idea that affection naturally expands outward in concentric circles.⁴ For Confucians, moral development must start with deep devotion, loyalty, and filial piety (hsiao) within one’s immediate family and circle. Only once a person learns genuine care and respect at home can that compassion naturally extend out to neighbors, fellow citizens, and the broader world.

To be effective in practice, this organic expansion of love must take into account socio-cultural rules, roles, and expectations (li). Without these structured relationships and distinct obligations, Confucians argued that an abstract "universal love" risks dissolving into an empty ideal that ignores real human attachments.

Earlier Chinese religion practiced divination through oracle bones, ancestor veneration, and belief in a great cosmic deity (Shang-ti). But Confucianism generally tried to steer thinking away from the transcendent toward the humanistic, practical, and social realm. This trend is found in the foundational texts known as the Four Books (The Analects, Mencius, The Great Learning, and The Doctrine of the Mean) as well as the Five Classics (Book of Rites, Book of Documents, Book of Odes, Book of Changes / I Ching, and Spring and Autumn Annals).

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¹ In 1382 (during the early Ming dynasty under Emperor Hongwu), imperial decrees modified official ritual standards in state-sponsored Confucian temples. The government replaced sculpted statues of Confucius and his disciples with simple wooden Spirit Tablets (Shen-wei) inscribed with their names and titles, to discourage idolatry and align with strict ritual propriety.

² Romanized Chinese terms throughout this post strictly follow the traditional Wade-Giles transliteration system (e.g., Ju, jen, chun tzu, Mo Tzu, Chuang-Tzu, Meng-tzu, T'ien, Shen-wei, Chien-ai, Ch'a-i).

³ S. G. F. Brandon ed., Dictionary of Comparative Religion (1970: 203-205).

⁴ Distinguishing Mo Tzu's concept of chien-ai (often translated as "impartial care" or "universal love") from the Confucian idea of "graded love" (ch'a-i) highlights a major classical debate. Mo Tzu was the founder of Mohism—a separate, rival school to Confucianism—rather than a Confucian thinker.